SOMALIA;A SIGNIFICANT UPSURGE TO GLOBAL TERRORISM

By

Nadeem Khalil,

MBA Homeland Security

Somalia; A peninsula on one side sharing waters with Indian Ocean and another side with the Gulf of Aden. It is the easternmost country of Africa and is located in the Horn of Africa, a horn-shaped land structure that consisting the easternmost of the Africa continent. Somalia is sovereign with an area of 1.88 Million Square Km and a population of 16,516,763 (1.65 crores), the country is having 99.9% of Muslim majority. Sharing land borders on the east side with Kenya and Ethiopia and on the northeast side with Djibouti. The capital of Somalia is Mogadishu. Government is federal parliamentary republic and country’s president is Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo.

1.1 History and Independence

The establishment of Islam was seated by the earlier Arabs as one of the oldest mosque Masjid al-Qiblatyan in the Zelia region. The earlier rulers ruled as Ifat sultanate, Sultanate of Mogadishu, Adal Sultanate, and Ajuran sultanate from 9th – 19th century. In the late 19th century, in the wake of the Berlin conference in 1884 European powers started the conquest of Africa. The fascist government of Italy headed by Benito Mussolini attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia), on 3rd August 1940. Italian troops launched an attack to invade British Somaliland and by 14th August, they succeeded in taking Berbera from the British. During the world war II, the British gained control over both British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland. Somalia gained independence from both the nations within 10 years in 1960 by the work of three parties; Somalia Youth League (SYL), Somalia National League (SNL), Hizbia Digila Mirifle Somalia (HDMS).

1.2 Somalia, the Coup and Civil Unrest

After gaining independence from British and Italy, the first government in Somalia was formed by a coalition of southern-based SYL and Northern based SNL. The leaders of both the areas met in Mogadishu and came up with a solution to form a united Somalia. On 1st July 1960, formation of the Republic of Somali was formalized by unification of two Somaliland territories. The first elected president of the Republic of Somali was Aden Abdullah Osman Darr and he appointed Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as the first Prime Minister. However, this unification of both sides (Northern & Southern) couldn’t unify the perspectives, mode of work, police arrangements, and tax policies. After nine years of independence, the country was unfolding the effects of colonization. In 1969, President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by his bodyguard and soon military gained the powers in the country. Mohammad Said Barri of the army along with help from the Somalia Revolutionary Council (SRC) assumed the powers. It was revealed that members of SRC actively participated in the assassination of President Shermarke. SRC renamed the country as the Democratic Republic of Somalia and dissolved Parliament, Supreme Court, and scraped the constitution. The autocratic rule in the country emphasized on development, Islamic visions, and a few Marxist ideologies till 1977. Same year, the Ogaden war broke between Ethiopia and Somalia. In the earlier stages of the war, Somalia was dominating and conquered 90% of the Ogaden. 20,000 Cuban soldiers and soviet war experts helped Ethiopia. With the defeat in the war, the conditions worsened more during the Cold war, and citizens began to feel deluded under the military rule. In the mid of 1980 resistance movements started opposing the autocratic rule and its policies. The country being clan-based, few clans provided strength to the resistance and became the face of separatism. A podium for civil war and the sequence for the destruction of Somalia was imminent. Heavy shelling, nocturnal raids, and blazing of farming lands led to the droughts. Neighboring countries Ethiopia and Libya provided support in the formation of the Republic of Somaliland in May 1991. During the late 90’s, many attempts of peace were made by United Nations and its members like the USA, and in the year 2000 Transitional National Government (TNG) was formed. It remained in control till 2012.

2.1 Rise Of; Islamic Courts, Armed Groups & Terrorism

Somalia is a clan-based country and there are four major clans; Darod, Hawiye, Issaq, and Dir. The fragile governments, gave positions in the parliament to the head of each clan. These Heads wanted to justify their presence and demanded Islamic / Sharia law all over the country. This whole setup of Islamic / Sharia law was molded in the form of Islamic Courts. The first Islamic court was formed in the North of Mogadishu year 1994. The courts however created chaos in the system. Every clan followed their respective court and this resulted in inter-clan rivalries. By 2004, Islamic courts occupied place in all the local and state matters.

2.1.1 Rise of Armed Groups & Terrorism

The rise of Islamic courts bought few other aspects with it. During 2005, unknown assassinations were taking place in Mogadishu and Islamic courts blamed it as a covert mission of the USA targeting the higher-ranking members of the militia groups. These unknown killings create chaos in the Islamic Courts Union and eventually gave rise to Al-Shabab meaning “The Youth”. Al- Shabab was the first recognized armed group of Somalia that started attacks on the security forces and the members of the Transitional Federal Government. Later, few other groups came into existence either as the rivals of Al-Shabab like ISAG (Islamic State Affiliated Group) or as the other Islamic tenet-based group like Alu Sunna Waljam’s (Based on Sufism). Clan-based militia groups also enjoyed prominent presence in Somalia. All these militia groups sullied the living standards of normal life in the country, from plotting the small attacks to the suicide bombings, abductions, and few other dreaded aspects of terrorism.

2.2.2-Armed Groups Diaspora & Human Rights Violation in Somalia

The diaspora of armed groups in Somalia were in existence before the recognition of Islamic courts. Their modus operandi, sources of support, and funding revealed the motive and rage against the government and external support. The first glimpse of armed groups was seen in the year 1984 by the surfacing of Al-Itihaad-Al-Islamiya (AIAI). This Salafi militant organization was active from 1984-1992. To counter, a mission that was initiated by United Nations in Somalia named (UNSOM). The mission acted to promote the Federal Government. UNSOM reports, estimated and identified 40 armed groups in Somalia.

3.1 AL ITIHAAD AL ISLAMIYA (AIAI)

3.1.1 Executive Summary

AIAI was the first recognized armed group of Somalia. The presence was reported for first time in 1984. The group was formed by the alliance of two groups Al Jamma’s Al Islamiya (AJAI) and Wahadat AIAI. In 2017, AJAI signed an agreement with Gulmudag for power sharing. AIAI was backed by Al-Qaeeda. The rise of Islamic courts in Somalia was one of the main policies of the AIAI. The armed group came into the limelight during the resistance era of Somalia against the autocratic rule of Siad Barrie. In other senses, the basic point of the formation of an armed group was to fight against Siad Barrie’s autocratic rule. The group aimed to form an Islamic nation. The first leader of the AIAI was Sheikh Ali Warsame. Barrie’s regime fell in 1991. In the same year 1991, the armed group joined Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF). The momentum of the AIAI got shifted towards Ethiopia as they assumed Ethiopia as their enemy and also shifted their camps to the Ogaden region of Somalia.

3.1.2 Military Stance of AIAI

The head of AIAI’s militant wing was a Somalia-based person named Hassan Dahir. The sole aim of AIAI was the implementation and practice of the Sharia law and to capture the areas which had a high economic affinity. With this self-centered idea they got the first capture in January 1991, the place was Kismayo’s port, where they garnered a lot from the taxes of import and export goods. In March 1991, General Farah Aided marched in Kismayo backed up with the Hawiye clan’s militia named as United Somali Congress (USC), and regained its control over the region. AIAI suggested the right administrator of the town to be the Darod clan. However, plea to this offer was rejected and eventually General Aideed captured the town. The vengeance rose between Hawyie clans against Darod clan and looting, murdering, and raping of women commenced. The refugees of the Darod clan who were in support of AIAI rejoined the group in the northeast region of Somalia which is now known as Puntland. In 1992, the complete group attempted to gain control of the commercial region in the area that led to clashes with the Somalia Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) drawn from the Darod clan. The SSDF displaced and defeated AIAI from the Puntland. AIAI got support and united Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF). ONLF was the separatist group of Somalia and was settled in the Ogaden region of Ethiopia. Both the groups unleashed a series of attacks on the Ethiopia from border to the capital region of Addis Ababa. They were aiming to predominantly controlling the Ogaden region. This series of attacks on Ethiopian targets led to damaged Ethiopian internal security setup. On August 9, 1996, AIAI shifted to borders to the region near Ethiopia, after being chased by the Ethiopian army. After entering the Somalia territory, the army destroyed the base of AIAI and other strongholds of the AIAI.

3.1.3 Political Stance of AIAI

After heavy defeats in military operations, AIAI opted to re-innovate the organization by withdrawing all the military operations and adopted a pack of political ideologies. AIAI initiated missions to gain popularity and fame among Somalia’s population. The organization started to deal and strengthen the ties with clans, Islamic courts, business tycoons, and banks. AIAI wanted to appear as a new face of political setup for ruling Somalia. The organization supported the rise of Islamic courts across the country. Thus, crime rate reduced at the regional level. They were intervening in the import/export business trades, providing employment to people and setting relief settlements. During 1997-98 the country faced a wave of natural disasters in the form of heavy floods and AIAI took it as an opportunity to develop its image. Dubai and Saudi Arabia channelized the funds in Somalia through various schemes and credit policies. AIAI benefitted through these schemes and helped settle people overtly and spent this capital covertly on other military operations against Ethiopia and enemies of Somalia.

3.1.4 Ties with Other Organizations

The basic sturcture of the AIAI was laid in Somalia. All necessary help was provided by Al- Qaeda. AIAI thus throughout maintained good ties with Al-Qaeda. It was said that AIAI is the branch of Al-Qaeda in Somalia. They came from similar ideologies and wanted to make Somalia a Muslim nation and apply Sharia law. Al-Qaeda supported the military stance of the AIAI by providing training to the AIAI cadres, provisioning logistic support, and financial support up to $3 million. Both the organizations helped each other in their missions. They extended their support to the Ogaden National Liberation Front (ONLF) after the falling of Barre’s regime in 1991, as they were seeking the same goal, and both cooperated and operated missions against Ethiopia, taking it as their common enemy. AIAI provided economic and militia support to the ONLF for operating those missions. ONLF shared ties with AIAI till its collapse. After the collapse of AIAI, the members start joining a new theme of Jihadi Muslims under the cloak of the Islamic Courts Union. All the senior and other members of AIAI came under the same canopy and failed to make their mark later.

3.1.5 Economic Resources

AIAI camouflaged under the shadow of Al-Qaeda / Osama Bin Laden, received funds. The Government of Sudan also provided economic, logistic, and militia training support to AIAI. Other Islamic nations like Saudi Arabia, Tanzania, and few others from the Middle East kept supporting the organization. Funds were also raised by illegal criminal activities, business activities, and by conducting operations with United Nations Mission in Somalia (UNSOM).

3.1.6 Major Operations of AIAI

In the first few years of formation the activities were on low ebb. However, after getting into the limelight and attaining the aura of an organization, major series of attacks were reported either with the collaboration with other groups or a sort of lone attacks.

3.2 Ahulu Sunna Waljama’s

3.2.1 Executive Summary

Ahulu Sunna Waljama’s (ASWJ) was established in 1991 by the Sufi Muslims of Somalia to protect the Sufi Muslims and their tenets from the other extreme Muslims. The extreme Muslim communities were considered to be dominated by the supporters of Al-Shabab and AIAI. Basically, in Muslims, it has been said that While Wahabism is an extreme form of the radicalization, and violence, Sufi Muslims are considered to believe in simplicity and non-violence. The group was initially established to look after religious interests and progress. However, in the year 2008, the group changed into an armed militant organization and started retaliating to extreme Islamic groups like Al-Shabab and AIAI. During this phase, Al-Shabab was not the only enemy of ASWJ but they also of the Transitional Federation Government (TFG). Both ASWJ and TFG collaborated against Al-Shabab. ASWJ negotiated for administration of regions and power-sharing with the government.

3.2.2 Reaction to the Atrocities and Gaining Military Power

The organization that worked for the cause of Sufi Muslims was backed by General Mohammad Farah Aided and few leaders of Sufi Muslims. During the earlier phases of ASWJ, non-violent method like preaching and uniting of leaders were adopted for countering Islamic extremism. This method was inadequate to stop the momentum gained by the extremists. In the period (1991-2001), no record of violence by ASWJ exists. The focus of the organization was to fill the space with Islamic preaching, gathering, and resolving disputes according to the accords of Islam. When the Al-Shabab started its atrocities, changing ideologies, and indulged in the destruction of the tombs of Sufi saints, the ASWJ changed its methodology from non-violence to having their army for retaliation. The manpower was gathered from the clans and was trained to create brigades of militias. The phases of retaliation started in the year 2008. ASWJ called for jihad against the Al-Shabab and other extremist organizations. Both ASJW and Al-Shabab caged Somalia in the war-like situation. The first clash from fists to heavy weapons lasted for almost two years. During this period, ASWJ received support from Ethiopia and combined clans of Somalia. ASWJ assumed established itself as power to recon with. ASWJ tried to remove differences amongst clans and bring them under one canopy of Sufi Muslims. This collaboration and unification of Clans-ASWJ and Ethiopia became a governance issue for the TFG and Prime Minister Sharmarke. The combination was assessed as “a group having the potential to destabilize power in Somalia”.

3.2.3 Political Profile of ASWJ and Unpopular Practices

Being a non-violent and less extreme armed militia, ASWJ created a position to be inclined towards political subjects and maintained a good political profile. ASWJ after its creation, opposed Islamic extremists. Almost after the two decades of its being and two years of clashes with Al-Shabab, in 2010 ASWJ get into the first page of its political book, a power-sharing agreement with the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). The agreement accorded to give ministerial posts to ASWJ members. ASWJ was considered and recognized as a legitimate security force. According to ASWJ members, the TFG didn’t bestowed the exact number of ministerial posts as were promised in agreement and later on salary-based aspects also started causing fissures in the collaboration. ASWJ started gaining legitimacy worldwide as a legitimate government. Within an year, ASWJ was recognized by various delegations and countries like Norway and Ethiopia. ASWJ also received a call from the United Nations for the meetings to discuss on the good future of Somalia. Fissures started to appear between ASWJ and TFG and the members of TFG didn’t attend the meeting. ASWJ in the year 2017, signed a power-sharing agreement with the government of Galmudug state. The power-sharing agreement was signed by the president of Galmudug state President Ahmed Daul Ghelle “Xaaf” and ASWJ leader “Sheikh Mohammad Shakir Al Hassan”. This agreement was built around “ASWJ leaders will get seats in the state cabinet and Shakir al Hassan will be the chief minister of the state. ASWJ militia will get the control and collaborate with the state army”. Accordingly, ASWJ took over the authority of the Galmudug state and further strengthened their political profile.

In 2010, after assuming the powers, ASWJ started dominating the TFG. From 2010 to 2017, the organization gained powers in various states of Somalia. This created threat for the existent of TFG and sustenance of its subjects. ASWJ allegedly stopped the Quran preaching in schools, closed few mosques suspecting them having ties with Al-Qaeda and thus spreading Islamic extremism. The rate of criminal activities increased substantially. The organization closed few radio stations in various cities and imposed a ban over numerous news channels by labeling them as supporting Islam extremists.

3.2.4 Capital Support and External Ties

ASWJ was established for the purpose to save the Sufi Muslims from the attacks of extremists such as Al-Shabab and other groups. Overtly and in Government, ASWJ had good links and ties with the TFG. Both the organizations fought well to end the era of Al-Shabab and others which were disturbing the internal security of Somalia. Support from Ethiopia was in the form of money, weapons, logistics, and estimated 1000 fighters were trained in Ethiopia for four months.

3.2.5 Major Attacks

3.3 Harkat-al-Shabab-al Mujahideen

3.3.1 Executive Summary

Al-Shabab is understood to be a descent of Al-Qaeda. Al-Shabab is an Arabic word that means the youth moment. The youth movement attracted attention from Australia, Canada, the United States, and the United Arab Emirates. Al-Shabab was established in 2006 with the Salafi ideology an extreme form of Islamic tenets. Despite Somalia having a Sufi majority, Jihadi fundamentalism was enforced by Al-Shabab. The outfit brought the inhuman tactics of the attacking the schools and suicide bombing. They brought foreign militants for their training and operations. A formulated Jihadi fundamentalist group shared ties with Al-Qaeda and Boko Haram. Most of its operations were conducted against the Federal Government of Somalia and African Union Mission to Somalia (AMISOM).

3.3.2 Origins and Inheritance

After the closure of AIAI, the young militants of the armed group joined ICU (Islamic court union). In the same year, June 2006 both the AIAI and Al-Shabab gained control of Capital in Somalia. It was the second year of Al-Shabab’s establishment under the leadership of Aden Hashi Ayro, who was earlier a part of AIAI. After the closure of the Islamic Courts Union in December 2006, Al-Shabab remained active. Under Aden Hashi Ayro leadership in 2006, Al-Shabab was recognized as an independent armed group whose vision was to make Somalia an Islamic nation and its mission was to apply strict Sharia law in the country, a vision was prepared by Osama bin laden after the end of Barre’s regime in 1991. Al-Shabab carried out a series of heinous attacks from mass killings, car bombings to suicide bombing. Al-Shabab couldn’t make good ties with any other armed group except Al-Qaeda. Both the organization shared the same extreme ideologies, to threaten and to grab international attention. Both the organization had militant force support from foreign countries and operating powers too.

3.3.3 Involvement of Foreigners & Impact

The uniqueness about Al-Shabab was the involvement and support from foreigners. The impact it created was of unprecedented dimensions. Foreigners considered and fought this war as the holy war against the administration and presence of other forces in Somalia. The first few countries who were drawn into Somalia militancy were Egypt and Libya, in 2006. According to the terrorism and counter-terrorism experts, the peak period of foreign recruitment was during 2007-2008. United States, Homeland Security Department arrested about 30 personals who were linked with the Al-Shabab and two among them were involved in fundraising for Al-Shabab. During the period, the Canadian government also apprehended about 40 personals that were linked with the Al-Shabab. But the major human and capital support for the Al-Shabab movement came from Yemen, Sudan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. In the queue of reports, it was formulated that the militants of Al-Shabab were trained in the tribal outskirts of Pakistan. The leaders used media tactics to influence the youth and other age groups for joining Islam. They spread radicalization in every form. When talking about the impacts, they were unprecedented, countries like Ethiopia, Kenya, the United States and other countries faced internal security issues. These issues came from the extreme radicalization of Islam and pro-jihadist. After 9/11, nations around the globe saw Al-Qaeda spreading its tentacles around the globe. Al-Shabab was against the Ethiopian setups in Somalia and collaborative setups like AMISOM which were established for the peacekeeping processes in Somalia. Al-Shabab also targeted Ahulu Sunna Wal Jama (ASWJ) who propagated the Sufi ideology.

3.3.4 Ideology, Objectives and Goals

Al-Shabab was an Islamic Salafi ideologist organization. Salafi ideologies of Islam are strict and extremism philia their purpose is to make any nation a complete Islamic nation and to encompass and inculcate strict Sharia law. The captured areas which were under the Al-Shabab witnessed a variety of changes in laws like chopping off the hand of thieves, stoning the females who so engaged in adultery, strictness on beard cutting, and stoppage of tobacco chewing. The armed organization was totally against any western culture. They banned the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and made them close their offices in Somalia. The armed organization served various objectives but amongst all of them, the main objective was to establish Somalia as an Islamic nation. The most accurate and relatable objective that the organization served was the opposition of the western-backed government in Somalia. Al-Shabab marked their goals at both domestic and international levels. The period was characterised by the mass killing of security personals in the TFG and bombing in Kenya and Uganda. The armed organization also aimed to threaten the United States and the United Kingdom in various ways. The group became stronger in pursuing its goals after 2008 when they make firm and operational ties with Al-Qaeda.

3.3.5 Ties With Other Organizations

It is quite evident that is difficult for a small organization from an unsettled country to create such a deleterious effect all over the globe. Ties with other organizations and generative funding are the key to their success. Amongst others, Al-Shabab shared operational and logistics ties with Al-Qaeda, Boko Haram and Hizbul Islam.

3.3.6 Funding

The funding mostly came from piracy, extortion of farmers, local business personals, and other elite idols. Smuggling Somalia coal despite it being banned by United Nations was one of the major sources of funding. Reports during 2012 stated that Al-Shabab spent $21 million on weapons, training, and intelligence.

3.3.7 Major Attacks

Conclusion

Somalia never calmed its nerves for the past five decades. Trembling Government, civil war, and armed groups collapsed peace and normality in Somalia. As a nation, Somalia added a significant upsurge to global terrorism. Armed groups never gave anyone a chance to adopt peace and prosperity in Somalia. The country proliferated a sense of fear and terror all over the globe specially after 9/11 when the Jihadi network was spreading. Countries or UN Peacekeeping Missions in Somalia were attacked by the armed groups and threatened. These aspects generated a slow decay to the life and development in the country. In a few years, Somalia jumped from 8th to 5th on the global terror index which indicated that the “country was harboring and couldn’t fix the tenets of terrorism”. Al-Shabab is still charged with terrorism inside and outside of Somalia. Recently, in August 2021, they recaptured a town Amara from government forces guarded by troops drawn from special forces. Mohamed Abdullahi Farmajo is the present president of Somalia, a federal government which he is governing. The government of Somalia is internationally recognized and has many embassies in various countries over the globe. Ethiopia, Uganda, and United States are providing support for fighting against terrorism.

To be continued...

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References